以不作为形式实施的危害社会行为构成犯罪的称为不作为犯。作为义务是构成不作为犯的前提要件，准确界定作为义务来源的类型，对于正确认定不作为犯具有重要意义。

　　一、不作为义务来源的基本理论存在的问题

　　通说将作为义务来源分为四种: 一是法律明文规定的作为义务。 二是职务或业务要求的作为义务。三是法律行为产生的作为义务。四是先行行为引起的作为义务。由于对不作为犯义务来源的分类没有与不作为犯的类型结合起来，一般认为上述四种不作为义务来源在不作为犯的所有种类中都可以适用，为此，有人提出以公序良俗作为认定纯正不作为犯义务来源等有争议的问题，致使不作为犯界限不断模糊，准确地判断作为义务是否存在仍然是有较大的困难。

　　在理论上根据刑法规定的行为类型和实际犯罪行为的类型两个标准，把不作为犯分为纯正不作为犯和不纯正不作为犯，这种分类是建立在法定的行为样态和实际的行为样态基础上的，而没有从作为义务的来源角度进行考虑。行为样态确实是纯正不作为犯与不纯正不作为犯的一个区分点。但必须指出的是，从行为样态界分二者仍然是一种表象的或者浅层次的界分，并未触及问题的实质所在，即不作为犯罪的作为义务来源。法律之所以要求行为人对其身体相对的消极静止或“不为”状态承担刑事责任，主要是因为行为人在当时负有积极实施特定行为的义务。行为人当为而不为，即违反了作为义务，是行为人为其不作为承担刑事责任的根本原因。因此，对于不作为犯刑事责任的确定，最为关键也最为本质在于确定其作为义务的来源问题。从马克思主义唯物辩证法的相关原理来看，事物的本质是一事物区别他事物的规定性，事物的本质通过属性得以表现，把握事物的本质是认识的基础，也是实践的起点。据此，对纯正不作为与不纯正不作为的理论界分，应当将视角向纵深延伸至不作为犯的本质层面，即作为义务的来源层面。因此，纯正不作为犯与不纯正不作为犯的真正区别或实质区别便不在于作为义务面前行为样态是否本来就是纯粹消极不为本身，而在于作为义务来源上。也只有正确把握作为义务的来源，才能准确认定不纯正不作为犯的构成，实现准确定罪。

　　二、纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源

　　所谓纯正不作为犯，是指只能通过消极不为而始能构成的犯罪，如我国刑法规定的拒不提供间谍犯罪证据罪、不移交刑事案件罪和国外刑法规定的见危不救罪等。

　　纯正不作为犯的本系没有实施任何危害行为，其实际行为样态为“无”。立法之所以强令行为人承担某种义务而使其在不承担该义务时便构成不作为犯，实则出于某种功利的考虑，尤其是出于政治功利的考虑。为保证国民预期合理性和社会的安定性，基于刑法谦抑性的考量，刑法立法不能轻易对不作为犯，特别是纯正不作为犯予以规制。在此方面，见危不救罪至今还没有为我国立法确认便是一个典型的例证。究其原因主要在于在见危不救的场合，课以不特定人员以救助义务，一方面淡化了十几具有救助责任人的义务承担，不符合社会分工的原则，同时，也过多地限制了公众的行为选择权利。因此，纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源于法律规定，亦即纯正不作为犯应被看成是法定不作为犯。这里所说的法律规定，通常是指行政法规的相关规定，如对于已经涉嫌犯罪的税收违法案件有关税收工作人员有意不将其移送司法机关而成立不移送刑事案件罪这样的场合，税收工作人员的移送义务来自税法的有关规定。当然，有时也指刑法的直接规定，如拒不提供间谍犯罪证据罪，刑法条文直接赋予知情者提供间谍犯罪证据的作为义务。纯正不作为犯的法定性，是指刑事立法直接将某种不作为规定为犯罪，如拒不提供间谍犯罪证据罪; 纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源的法定性，则是指在其他非刑事法律中规定了某种作为义务，如税法规定税收工作人员有将涉嫌犯罪的税收违法案件移送司法机关的义务。

　　纯正不作为犯的法定性及其作为义务来源的法定性，正如考夫曼反对不纯正不作为犯的前行为保证人类型的理由所说明的那样: “第一，他认为前行为保证人类型的法理结构误植于因果作用上，变成一种习惯法上的法义务; 第二，前行为的义务类型可以经由立法成为一种法定的，而不是习惯法上的法义务，但违背此种义务只能成立纯正的不作为犯，因为前行为后的不作为不能和作为等价，光是因为前行为可能造成结果发生的危险，还不足以成为一个独立的保证人类型，除非再加上其他能满足等价性要求的条件类型。”考夫曼的理由对于我们把握纯正不作为犯的法定性及其作为义务来源不无启发: 纯正不作为犯，实质上就是法定的不作为犯，而纯正不作为犯的法定性则最终来自作为义务本身的法定性，但这里的法不是习惯法而是制定法。

　　提出纯正不作为犯的作为义务来自法律的规定，意味着公序良俗是不能成为纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源的。 这是因为公序良俗更多的是道德性的直接说明。当代西方著名的法哲学家哈贝马斯就曾对有关法律与道德之间的差别发表过深刻的见解。他认为，法律与道德之间的差别体现在: 首先，二者的作用方式不同。道德虽然具有调节行为的作用，但它本质上是一种知识，一种道德辨别能力和看待问题的方式。他的约束力诉诸社会舆论和个人良心。而法律则既是知识又是制度，它依靠体制化的强制和武力制裁来保障实施; 其次，二者的产生方式不同。道德作为知识体系是自然成长起来的，而法律作为知识体系则是理性制定出来的; 再次，二者的调整主体不同。道德侧重于调节自然人之间的关系和冲突，而法律则调整特定群体中个人之间、个人与群体之间以及群体与群体之间的关系和冲突; 最后，二者的适用范围也有所不同。一般地，道德没有边界和国家，但法律的适用范围通常是特定的国家、地区或共同体”。而法律与道德的上述区别使得一旦将道德义务作为纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源，则将如有学者指出:“首先，它将导致认知负担上的加重。

　　诚然，在一个熟人共同体中，对于一些道德原则的理解，人们并不会产生理解上的争议，但在复杂的现代社会，高度抽象的道德原则一旦针对不同的具体情境，就会使人们在认知上发生困难。以道德义务作为纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源，无疑将大幅度增加公众的道德认知负担。这对于节奏不断加快的现代社会显然是较难接受的。其次，它将导致行为期待上的不可靠。法律通常不问动机而重视行为，但在道德领域，动机不仅至关重要而且极为不确定。道德的这种动机的不确定性，使得其施行端赖个人良心的省思和自我意志力的把持，而这无疑将使得人与人之间的行为期待变得不可靠。最后，它将导致义务归属上的困难。法律的效力不是依靠个人的道德判断，而是法律背后的组织权力，因而它可以解决由当事人的法律义务所产生的大量问题。但在现代社会，道德通常缺乏体制性的保障，其监督施行只能诉诸公众舆论的谴责和社会压力，故以道德义务作为纯正不作为犯罪的作为义务来源，将导致义务归属上的困难。”可见，公序良俗是难以构成纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源的。当然，我们也应该看到，即便是有的公序良俗确实重要到必须用刑法来加以维护的程度，如见死施救，那也必须通过法律规定而将其由道德或习惯上义务而上升为法定的义务。在这方面的例证，如德国刑法第323条作出了一般人助义务的规定，而该规定是纯正不作为犯的规定。所以，将公序良俗本身直接作为纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源将招致刑法的谦抑性或最后手段性与罪刑法定原则的安定性的反对。与法律在作用方式、产生方式、调整主体以及适用范围等方面的显著区别，已经使得公序良俗难以构成纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源，因为纯正不作为犯毕竟也是一种“法律”现象; 当道德作为纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源又有着学者所指出的诸多弊端，则公序良俗便更难以构成纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源了。公序良俗不能构成纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源，是符合刑法的谦抑性与罪刑法定原则的内在要求的。

　　纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源应具有法定性，而不纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源应在纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源之外，即职务业务行为、法律行为或者地位、先行行为产生的作为义务不能成为纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源。先行行为人的保证人类型是先行行为作为义务的主要理论基础，但学术上对先行行为保证人类型的“确信”是来自对其理论依据的“盲信”，而实务上对前行为保证人类型的“确信”则是来自对以恶制恶的“迷恋”，所招致的理论与实践问题比起能够解决的问题更多，因此，不纯正不作为犯的前行为保证人类型应予否定，那么，先行行为是不纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源也应予以否定。对于特定的职务或业务行为与特定的法律地位和法律行为，当立法强行规定行为人负有防止之危害结果义务时，期作为义务已经法定化了，则所成立的仍然是纯正不作为犯。因此，对于纯正的不作为犯，法定义务以外并无其他作为义务的来源。根据不作为犯罪的类型确定其构成犯罪的义务来源，对于避免认定不作为犯罪扩大化具有十分重要的意义。

　　三、不纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源

　　所谓不纯正不作为犯，是指通过不作为来实现本可通过作为来实现的犯罪。不纯正不作为犯非法定不作为犯，即作为义务非来自法律规定的不作为犯。当法律的规定构成了纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源。构成不纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源的则只可能有三类，即特定的职务或业务行为、特定的法律行为和先行行为。特定的职务或业务行为与特定的法律行为如契约行为表明行为人已经肩负起某种义务，故视为不纯正不作为犯的作为义务来源当无疑问。先行行为构成作为义务则是需要认真研究的。

　　不纯正不作为犯的前行为人保证类型的组合及其招致的问题，有学者将前行为保证人类型构想出如下8 种组合: 1．故意作为侵害法益+ 故意不作为，所侵害的法益不同。如放火烧他人的房子，当听到有人呼救，为怕暴露行藏而看着被害人被烧死。2．故意作为侵害法益+ 过失不作为，所侵害的法益不同。如甲出于避免妻乙知其秘密访客而将其迷倒，欲待访客走后叫醒乙，而乙却因甲回来太晚身亡。3． 故意作为侵害法益+ 故意不作为，所侵害的法益相同。如甲举刀欲杀乙，乙躲闪摔入水池中，甲明知乙不会游泳却扬长而去，乙溺死。4．故意作为侵害法益+ 过失不作为，所侵害的法益相同。如甲常因乙在实验室太久而不能提早关门。某日，甲不想守门，将乙锁在室中，而乙又恰想提前离去。甲不予理会，在出去闲逛中又与朋友聊天到次日，才赶回开门。5．过失作为+ 故意不作为，所侵害的法益不同。如甲丢烟蒂在垃圾筒而引起火灾。当其想提水灭火时，却见幼儿乙正走向垃圾筒，乃转身离去。结果，房毁人死。6．过失作为+ 过失不作为，所侵害的法益不同。如同样用第五种例子，若甲见有烟自垃圾筒冒出，也未阻止乙，但当乙靠近时，火舌突然冒出，甲欲相救已晚，乙被严重灼伤。7.过失作为+ 故意不作为，所侵害的法益相同。如图书馆管理员误将甲锁在馆内，虽然后来发现甲，但为教训甲仍多关半天。8．过失作为+ 过失不作为，所侵害的法益相同。如甲跑步将乙撞落水池。甲误以为乙乃善泳的丙，便继续慢跑，结果乙溺死。第一种组合中，放火的因果流程由物及人，且没有其他原因力介入，发生变化的是甲的犯意增加，并假借已经存在的因果力量而得逞。消极地利用已经存在的因果作用以满足欲望，原本就是不纯正不作为犯典型的行为构造。在利用前行为的因果力量时，即使造成不止一个法益受到侵害，因果流程只有一个，故整个犯罪构造是两个故意、两个法益受侵害，如果借前行为保证人类型论以两罪，即故意放火和故意不纯正不作为杀人，则显然对因果流程作了两次评价即过度评价。在第二种组合中，甲下迷药致死乙确有过失，但难说具有“利用既存的因果流程”这样的归责基础，而所谓“过失不作为”这后半段犯罪事实中只是“过失”和“法益受侵害”。至于“过失不作为”，其对因果流程的作用则是“无作用”，自然无法再作评价。在第三种组合中，前行为的因果作用最终造成了死亡，若认为有两段因果流程，前一段没有造成死亡，成立杀人未遂，后一段溺水是另一段独立的因果流程，成立不纯正不作为杀人既遂，则互相矛盾: 若因果流程可以切断，则如何说明行为人必须因为前行为而对后面一段因果流程负排除的保证人义务? 第四种组合和第三种组合为同一类。因为有前行故意作为，而将没有作用的过失不作为拟制为有作用的作为，则岂不是任何一个作为犯皆同时成立一个不纯正不作为犯? 第五种组合和第七种组合与其他各类组合相同，都有一个单一的因果流程。在第六种和第八种组合中，前后两个过失的对象固然不同，但是这两个过失一旦拆开来，则前段过失行为成为未遂，而只能就后段过失行为论罪，则前行为保证人类型对这类组合非但不能解决问题，反而是在制造问题。故意和过失对犯罪流程的作用必定是连续的，否则故意行为必然因行为人意志的介入而成立中止未遂，而过失行为将因无结果而不罚。上述分析足以说明，先行行为产生作为义务要么不必要，要么会带来理论上的困境，把问题复杂化，因此并无实际存在的价值。因此，先行行为不应成为作为义务的来源。

　　（作者单位：安徽省凤阳县人民法院）
Hong Kong


MERCHANT SHIPPING (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ORDINANCE
　(CHAPTER 413)
　ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
　　
　　ion
　　
　　I　　　　PRELIMINARY
　　hort title
　　nterpretation
　　
　　II　　　 REGULATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION
　　egulations for the prevention and control of pollution
　　enalty for taking detained ship to sea
　　
　　III　　　SHIPPING CASUALTIES INVOLVING A RISK OF POLLUTION
　　pplication of Part III
　　hipping casualties
　　irections; right to recover in respect of unreasonable loss or
damage
　　ffences in relation to section 6
　　ervice of directions under section 6
　　Enforcement of fines
　　Saving of rights of action, etc.
　　
　　IV　　　 SAVINGS, AMENDMENTS AND REPEALS
　　Savings, amendments and repeals
　　
　　dule. (Omitted)
　　
　　rdinance to provide for the prevention and control of　pollution　
from
　　s and for incidental or related matters.
　　January 1991] L. N. 14 of 1991
　PART I PRELIMINARY
　　
　　hort title
　　Ordinance may be cited　as　the　Merchant　Shipping　
(Prevention　and
　　rol of Pollution) Ordinance.
　　nterpretation
　　his Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires--
　　trol" includes contain and reduce;
　　ector" means the Director of Marine;
　　charge" means any release, howsoever caused, from a ship and　
includes
　　escape, disposal, spilling, leaking, pumping,　emitting　or　
emptying;
　　does not include--
　　dumping within the meaning of the　Convention　on　the　
Prevention　of
　　ne Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter signed in
London on
　　ovember 1972; or
　　any release directly arising from the　exploration,　
exploitation　and
　　ciated off-shore processing of sea-bed mineral resources; or
　　any release for the purposes of legitimate　scientific　research　
into
　　ution abatement or control;
　　g Kong ship" means--
　　a ship registered in Hong Kong; and
　　a vessel required to be licensed under Part IV　of　the　Shipping　
and
　　Control Ordinance (Cap. 313);
　　" means oil of any description and includes spirit produced　from　
oil
　　ny description and also includes coal tar;
　　p" means a vessel of any　type　whatsoever　operating　in　the　
marine
　　ronment and includes a hydrofoil, hovercraft, submersible or　
floating
　　t and a fixed or floating platform.
　PART II REGULATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION
　　
　　egulations for the prevention and control of pollution
　　In this section--
　　vention" means the International　Convention　for　the　
Prevention　of
　　ution from Ships (including its　protocols,　annexes　and　
appendices)
　　h constitutes Attachment 1 to　the　Final　Act　of　the　
International
　　erence on Marine Pollution signed in London on　2　November　
1973,　as
　　fied by any international agreement referred to in subsection (2)
(b)
　　);
　　tocol" means the Protocol (including the annex　thereto)　
relating　to
　　Convention which constitutes Attachment 2 to　the　Final　Act　
of　the
　　rnational Conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention　
signed
　　ondon on 17 February 1978, as modified by any international　
agreement
　　rred to in subsection　(2)　(b)　(iii);　"substance　other　
than　oil"
　　udes sewage and garbage of any kind.
　　The Governor in Council may make regulations--
　　relating to the prevention or control of pollution of the sea or
other
　　rs by oil, or any substance other than oil, from ships; and
　　for giving effect to--
　　the Convention;
　　the Protocol; and
　　) any other international agreement (whether　made　by　
resolution　or
　　rwise) which relates to the prevention or control of pollution
of　the
　　or other waters by oil, or any substance other than　oil,　from　
ships
　　which applies to Hong Kong, including any agreement which
modifies any
　　r such agreement.
　　Regulations made under this section may be expressed to apply--
　　to Hong Kong ships, wherever they may be; and
　　to other ships while they are within the waters of Hong Kong.
　　
　　Regulations made under this section may provide that the　
regulations,
　　ny provisions thereof, shall come into force on a　date　
specified　in
　　regulations which is earlier than the date on which the　
international
　　ement to which the regulations relate comes into force.
　　Without limiting the generality of subsection　(2),　
regulations　made
　　r this section may include provisions--
　　for the approval of　documents,　the　appointment　of　
surveyors,　the
　　ying out of　surveys　and　inspections　and　the　rendering　
of　other
　　ices for the purposes of the regulations,　whether　in　Hong　
Kong　or
　　where,　and　for　the　issue,　duration,　effect　and　
recognition　of
　　ificates for those purposes;
　　for the keeping, carriage and inspection of　record　books　and　
other
　　rds of operations involving oil, or any substance other than　oil,　
on
　　d ships;
　　for the　prohibition,　regulation　and　control　of　the　
loading　and
　　iage on board ships, and the unloading or discharge from ships,
of oil
　　ny substance other than oil and for procedures relating thereto;
　　for the design and construction of, and the equipment and fittings　
on
　　d, ships carrying oil or any substance other than oil;
　　for the compulsory reporting of incidents involving pollution　
or　the
　　at of pollution for the purpose of giving effect to Protocol I
　　visions concerning reports on incidents involving harmful　
substances)
　　he Convention;
　　for the payment of fees (whether prescribed under this Ordinance,　
the
　　hant Shipping Ordinance (Cap. 281) or otherwise)　in　respect　
of　any
　　ey, inspection, certificate, service or other matter provided　
for　by
　　regulations;
　　that contraventions of the regulations shall be offences
punishable by
　　lties not exceeding--
　　on conviction upon indictment, a fine of $5,000,000 and, in　the　
case
　　n individual, imprisonment for 2 years;
　　on summary conviction, a fine of $500,000;
　　that in the case of any such contravention an offence is committed
by-
　　the master and the owner of the ship concerned; and
　　where the contravention is due to the　act　or　omission　of　
another
　　on, that person;
　　for denying entry of any ship to the waters of Hong Kong in respect
of
　　h any such contravention is believed to have occurred;
　　for detaining any ship in respect of which any such　
contravention　is
　　eved to have occurred and for notifying the relevant consular
officer
　　any) of the detention and of any proceedings against the ship;
and
　　for the admission of prescribed or specified documents　and　
certified
　　es of documents as evidence in legal proceedings,
　　the regulations may--
　　make different provisions for different circumstances or　in　
relation
　　ifferent classes or descriptions of ships;
　　provide for exemptions from any　provisions　of　the　
regulations　in
　　ect of different classes or descriptions of ships;
　　) provide for the granting by the Director, on such terms (if any)　
as
　　ay specify, of exemptions from any provisions of　the　
regulations　in
　　ect of any ship, or　class　or　description　of　ships,　and　
for　the
　　ration or cancellation of any such exemption;
　　provide for the approval by　the　Director　of　equivalent　
fittings,
　　pment or procedures as alternatives to those prescribed;
　　provide　for　the　delegation　of　powers　exercisable　and　
functions
　　ormable by virtue of the regulations;
　　provide for the application of the regulations to the Crown; and
　　) include such incidental, supplemental and transitional
provisions as
　　ar to the Governor in Council to be expedient for the purposes
of　the
　　lations.
　　
　　Any fees prescribed under this Ordinance--
　　may be fixed at levels which provide for the recovery　of　
expenditure
　　rred or likely to be incurred by the Government or other authority　
in
　　tion generally to the administration, regulation and control　of　
Hong
　　ships and of ports, ships and navigation in the waters of Hong　
Kong,
　　shall not be limited by reference to the amount of　
administrative　or
　　r costs incurred or likely to be incurred　in　the　provision　
of　any
　　icular service, facility or matter; and
　　may, without prejudice to the generality of paragraph (a), be
fixed at
　　erent amounts in relation to different sizes of ship, whether
measured
　　onnage, length or otherwise, or　in　relation　to　different　
classes,
　　s or descriptions of service, facility or ship.
　　
　　enalty for taking detained ship to sea
　　Where a ship is authorized or ordered to be detained under
regulations
　　under this Part, and after such detention or　after　service　on　
the
　　er of any notice of or order for such detention, the ship proceeds　
or
　　mpts to proceed to sea before having　been　released　by　a　
competent
　　ority, the master of the ship commits an offence and is　liable　
to　a
　　of $500,000 and to imprisonment for 2 years;　and　if　the　
owner　or
　　t or any person who sends the ship to sea is party　or　privy　to　
the
　　nce he also commits an offence and is liable to the same
punishment.
　　Where a ship proceeds to sea in contravention of subsection (1)
whilst
　　ng on board a public officer who is acting in　the　execution　of　
his
　　, the master and owner of the ship--
　　in addition to any punishment　to　which　they　may　be　liable　
under
　　ection (1), both commit an offence against　this　subsection　
and　are
　　liable to imprisonment for 6 months and to a fine of $20,000　and　
an
　　tional fine of $1,000 for each day during the period from the date　
on
　　h the ship proceeded to sea　until　the　date　on　which　the　
officer
　　rns to Hong Kong or, if he does not　return　directly　to　Hong　
Kong,
　　d have returned if he had travelled by the quickest practicable
route;
　　
　　are jointly and severally liable to pay to the Government all
expenses
　　dental to the taking of the officer to sea and to securing his　
return
　　ong Kong.
　　Expenses referred to in subsection (2) (b) may be recovered as
if they
　　a fine imposed by a magistrate.
　PART III SHIPPING CASUALTIES INVOLVING A RISK OF POLLUTION
　　
　　pplication of Part III
　　Subject to subsections (2) and (3), this Part shall apply in　
relation
　　ll ships whether within or outside the waters of Hong Kong.
　　As respects a ship which--
　　is not a Hong Kong ship; and
　　is for the time being outside the waters of Hong Kong,
　　power conferred on the governor by section 6 (2)　to　give　
directions
　　only be exercised in relation to--
　　an　individual　who　is　a　British　citizen,　a　British　
Dependent
　　itories citizen, a British Overseas citizen or who under the Hong
Kong
　　tish Nationality) Order 1986 (App. III, p. EG1) is a British
National
　　rseas); or
　　a body corporate which is established under the laws　of　Hong　
Kong,
　　section 8 (2) shall apply to such　an　individual　or　body　
corporate
　　.
　　No direction under section 6 (2) shall apply　to　any　vessel　
of　Her
　　sty's navy or to any ship not forming part of Her Majesty's navy
which
　　ngs to Her Majesty or is held by any person on behalf of　or　for　
the
　　fit of the Crown in right of Her Majesty's Government　in　the　
United
　　dom or Her Majesty's Government in Hong Kong, and no action　shall　
be
　　n under section 6 (4) or (5) as respects any such vessel or ship.
　　
　　hipping casualties
　　The powers conferred by this section may be exercised where--
　　an accident has occurred to or in a ship; and
　　in the opinion of the Governor--
　　oil, or any substance other than oil, from the ship will or may　
cause
　　ution on a large scale in Hong Kong or in the waters of Hong Kong;
　　if the ship is one referred to　in　section　5　(2),　the　
danger　of
　　ution is grave and imminent; and
　　) the exercise of the powers conferred by　this　section　is　
urgently
　　ed.
　　For the purpose of preventing or reducing pollution, or　the　
risk　of
　　ution, the Governor may give directions as respects the　ship　or　
its
　　o--
　　to the owner of the ship, or to any person in possession or control
of
　　ship; or
　　to the master of the ship; or
　　to any salvor in possession of the ship, or to any person who　is　
the
　　ant or agent of any such salvor, and who is in charge of the　
relevant
　　age operation.
　　Directions under subsection (2) may require the person　to　whom　
they
　　given to take,　or　refrain　from　taking,　any　action　of　
any　kind
　　soever, and without limiting　the　generality　of　the　
foregoing　the
　　ctions may require--
　　that the ship is to be, or is not to be, moved--
　　to or from a specified place, area or locality;
　　over a specified route; or
　　that any oil or other cargo is to be, or is not　to　be,　unloaded　
or
　　harged; or
　　that specified salvage measures are to be, or are not to be, taken.
　　If in the opinion of the Governor the powers conferred by
subsection
　　are, or have proved to be, inadequate for the　purpose,　the　
Governor
　　for the purpose of preventing or reducing pollution, or the　risk　
of
　　ution, take, as respects the ship or its cargo, any action of any
kind
　　soever, and without limiting　the　generality　of　the　
foregoing　the
　　rnor may--
　　do anything he has power to require to be done by　a　direction　
under
　　ection (2);
　　cause operations to be undertaken for the sinking　or　
destruction　of
　　ship, or any part of it, of a kind which is not within　the　means　
of
　　person to whom he may give such a direction;
　　cause operations to be undertaken which involve taking over
control of
　　ship.
　　The powers of the Governor under subsection (4) may also be　
exercised
　　uch persons as may be authorized in that behalf by the Governor.
　　A person concerned in complying with directions given,　or　in　
action
　　n, under this section shall use his best endeavours to avoid　risk　
to
　　n life.
　　Nothing in this section shall derogate from or　affect　any　
right　or
　　r of the Government existing apart from　this　section　whether　
under
　　rnational law or otherwise.
　　
　　Any action taken as respects a　ship　which　is　under　arrest　
or　as
　　ects the cargo of such a ship, being action taken　under　a　
direction
　　n under subsection (2), or under subsection (4) or (5)--
　　does not constitute contempt of court; and
　　shall not constitute a ground or cause of action in legal　
proceedings
　　ituted against the Government.
　　In this section--
　　ident" includes the loss, stranding, abandonment of　or　damage　
to　a
　　; "any substance other than oil" means--
　　any substance specified in an order made under subsection (10);
and
　　any other substance which is　liable　to　create　a　hazard　to　
human
　　th, to harm living resources and marine life, to damage　
amenities　or
　　nterfere with other legitimate uses of the sea;
　　cified", in relation　to　a　direction　under　subsection　(2),　
means
　　ified in the direction.
　　The Governor may, by order published　in　the　Gazette,　
specify　any
　　tance for the purposes of the definition of "any substance other　
than
　　in subsection (9).
　　
　　irections; right to recover in respect of unreasonable loss or
damage
　　If any action taken under a direction under section 6　(2),　or　
under
　　ion 6 (4) or (5)--
　　was not reasonably necessary to prevent or reduce pollution or,
as may
　　ppropriate, the risk of pollution; or
　　was　such　that　the　good　it　did　or　was　 likely　 to　
do　 was
　　roportionately less than the expense incurred, or damage suffered,　
as
　　sult of the action,
　　rson incurring expense or suffering damage as a result of the　
action,
　　f himself having taken the action, shall　be　entitled　to　
claim　and
　　ver compensation from the Government.
　　In determining whether subsection (1) applies in　a　particular　
case,
　　unt shall be taken of--
　　the extent and risk of pollution if the action had not been taken;
　　the likelihood of the action being effective; and
　　the extent of the damage which has been caused by the action.
　　Any reference in this section to the taking of any action　
includes　a
　　rence to a compliance with a direction　not　to　take　some　
specified
　　on.
　　ffences in relation to section 6
　　A person to whom a direction is given under section 6 (2) who fails
to
　　ly with any requirement of the direction, commits an offence.
　　A person who wilfully obstructs any person who is--
　　acting on behalf of the Governor in　connection　with　the　
giving　or
　　ice of a direction under section 6 (2);
　　acting in compliance with such a direction; or
　　acting under subsection (4) or (5) of that section,
　　its an offence.
　　In proceedings for an offence under subsection　(1),　it　shall　
be　a
　　nce for the accused to prove that--
　　he used all due diligence to secure compliance with the direction;
or
　　he had reasonable cause for believing that such compliance would　
have
　　lved a serious risk to human life.
　　A person who commits an offence under this section is liable-
-
　　on conviction upon indictment, to a fine of $5,000,000;
　　on summary conviction, to a fine of $500,000.
　　ervice of directions under section 6
　　If the Governor is satisfied that a company or other body
corporate is
　　one to which section 338 or 356 of the Companies Ordinance　(Cap.　
32)
　　ies so as to authorize the service of a direction on that　body　
under
　　er of those sections, he may give a direction under section 6 (2)--
　　to that body, as the owner of, or the person in possession or　
control
　　a ship, by serving the direction on the master of the ship; or
　　to that body, as a salvor, by serving the direction on the　person　
in
　　ge of the salvage operations.
　　For the purpose of giving or serving a direction under section　
6　(2)
　　r on any person on a ship, a person acting on behalf of　the　
Governor
　　l have the right to go on board the ship.
　　
　　Enforcement of fines
　　e a fine imposed in proceedings against the owner or master of
a　ship
　　an offence under this Part is not paid at　the　time　ordered　by　

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